Scott Kenney- Literature Review

Scott Kenney Literature Review

Self-Directed Learning

“Every man who rises above the common level has received two educations: the first from his teachers; the second, more personal and important, from himself.”

-Edward Gibbon-

Introduction

Self-directed learning is where an individual takes on a much larger ownership role in the learning process. Unlike pedagogy, adults are motivated more by intrinsic motivating factors than extrinsic motivating factors.  Adults are less motivated by grades and rewards, but find more learning opportunities with being “hands on” within the learning process. One of the key components of andragogy is an adult’s sense of independence and self-direction toward their learning.

Knowles defines self-directed learning as “Self-directed learning is a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and materials resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes. (Knowles, 1975, p.18).  Self-directed learning is one of the most popular researched areas in the field of adult education. One of the first important pieces of research about self-directed learning came from Allan Tough and Malcolm Knowles. Tough’s studies concluded that much of adult learning did not come from instructors, but of one’s self-direction. Later, Malcolm Knowles, one of the most central figures in adult education in the mid-1900’s, furthered that research with more analysis on self-directed learning. He proposed the “the hallmark of adult learning is that learners become increasingly self-directed as they mature” (Knowles, 1970, 1980). This paper will recognize the goals of self-directed learning, analyze the models of self-directed learning, and review certain examples to promote self-directed learning.

Goals of Self-Directed Learning

There are three goals towards self-directed learning. The first goal is to enhance the ability of the adults to be self-directed in their learning. The assumption with this goal is that an individual will be able to plan, execute, and evaluate their own learning (Merrian, Caffarella, Baumgartner, p. 107). This first goal’s foundation is that adult’s learn from personal growth and they will seek out advice if needed. Therefore, adults take on a much more ownership role in the learning process. For example, an online student may ask a professor for guidance about a certain project or assignment, such as locating resources, but ultimately it is up to the student to follow through with the completion of the particular assignment. This goal has recently been questioned due with its application to adults only. This can be something done at all levels to promote the idea of “lifelong learners” with elementary, middle, and high school students. (Schrader-Neff, p.107).

The second goal to foster transformational learning as central to self-directed learning. Transformational learning is about change- dramatic, fundamental change in the way we see ourselves and the world we live (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner p. 130). Transformational learning is connected to self-directed learning in that a transformational moment in someone’s life can help trigger one’s habit of mind or point of view (Merizow, 1997). A transformative moment could be a birth of a child, a diagnosis of cancer, the loss or a love one, or a career-altering moment in one’s profession. These changes in someone’s life allow for critical reflection to take place. This critical reflection is key towards changing one’s perspective on life. Also, Merizow states the “key” for self-directedness is “becoming critically aware of what has been taken for granted about one’s own learning” (p.17). Therefore, a transformative event not only can alter an individual’s point of view, but it can also help them become a more self-directed learner about a certain cause. For example, a married couple might reevaluate what they know about Down’s Syndrome if they give birth to a son or daughter with that particular birth defect. They might become more self-directed in learning about the genetic disorder, reaching out to other families with Downs Syndrome, or donating or volunteering for a local charity to help support fundraising. Another key component towards the second goal is the critical reflection.  Brookfield states, “the most complete form of self-directed learning occurs when process and reflection are married in the adult’s pursuit of meaning (Brookfield 1986, p. 38). I completely agree that the reflection and process should be linked together for an individual to learn on their own. Learning can be experimental in many phases; however, analyzing and reflecting on one’s processes fosters a greater sense of meaning. This deeper reflecting time helps promotes autonomy within one’s self and a greater sense of social action.

The third goal towards self-directed learning is enhancing the ability of individual learners to be more self-directed in their learning (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner p. 108). This goal is intended to promote emancipatory learning and social action. This third goal has received criticisms over the consistency and political factors of each group of adults that were being studied. Brookfield claims that certain groups or adults might receive preferential treatment based on costs for privileged groups and educators of adults should shift control over to the learners as much as possible throughout the learning process. It’s imperative to keep things consistent with adult learners, and that is key towards the success of goal number three with self-directed learning.

Self-Directed Learning as a Process

Learning on your own happens all of the time because adults are always aware of their surrounds and are more comfortable with their identity. There are three types of models with the process of self-directed learning- linear, interactive, and instructional. Tough’s (1967) and Knowles’ (1971) models are both linear in that there are certain steps towards learning in a self-directed manner. Tough, through his learning projects from Ontario Canada, claimed that 70% of adult learning came from the learners themselves and devised a thirteen-step process in which students learned on their own. Knowles model, which closely resembles Tough’s model, also has a six step process that involves diagnosing learning needs, formulating goals, implementing strategies and evaluating outcomes. While the sequencing of these linear steps appear valid, there are other models of self-directed learning that involve more interaction and instructional processes. I believe the more interactive and instructional processes hold true even more because learning should be more interactive.

The second form of processing as a self-directed learner is not of linear events, but rather a much more interactive model. Rather than learning via a sequential order, several other models introduce a much more involved way of learning. Spear’s model (1988) claims that certain events that are “clustered” together help promote one’s desire to want to learn. For example, an individual might move into a new house that is in need of several new updates and fixings. That, combined with the helpfulness of a handy-man new neighbor with some prior knowledge of carpentry will lead to a more successful self-led learner when it comes to fixing up their new house. Another example of processing interactively is the Personal Responsibility Orientation model.  This model, introduced by Brockett and Hiemstra argues that learners assume primary responsibility for planning, implementing, and evaluating their learning experiences (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner, p. 113). Another interactive model, Garrison’s model introduces a multidimensional model that connects self-monitoring, motivation, and self-management. The balance of responsibility and control, along with the combination of motivation allows for learner to help construct meaning of their learning, which ultimately leads to more self-direction in the learning process.

The third model of self-directed learning involve learning through instructional practices. These models are aimed to promote more self-direction in learning. Grow’s (1991, 1994) Staged Self-Directed Learning model identifies four stages of learners- the dependent learner, the interested learner, the involved learner, and the self-directed learner. Highlights of this model have instructors focus more on student-led discussions, discovery learning, and letting the instructor play more of monitor in the learning process rather than lecturing and commanding types of instructional methods. Another instructional model by Hammond and Collins (1991) promotes the social action and emancipatory learning as key components to self-directed learning. In this particular model, the authors have outlined a seven-step framework that emphasizes a more purposeful approach to learning. Therefore, adults can examine and critical reflect on their own social, political, and environmental factors to develop personal and social learning goals.

Implications

After reviewing several pieces of literature on self-directed learning, it is essential for adults to have some type of ownership towards their learning and some type of intrinsic motivation to learn. There are a number of ways to promote self-direction in a formal and non-formal educational setting, but are there any examples that help promote ownership and motivating factors? As an educator, I am constantly trying to make my classroom more student-driven with handing more ownership to my students. However, what about fostering more self-direction learning with adults? After reviewing certain examples, Edcamps are great examples of promoting ownership towards adult learning.

An Edcamp is a much more organic approach towards teacher development. It is where a group of educators meet in small groups and discuss meaningful instructional methods, curriculum development, social-emotional concerns, integrational of technology, and any other relevant topic in education. The beauty of an Edcamp is that there is no time table, no expert or instructor, or no agenda to regulate the conversations. The idea of Edcamps is relatively new in the educational world, but the concept is growing. The Edcamp model has spread rapidly since our first event in 2010, not only throughout the United States (41 states are now represented) but also internationally to Sweden, Ontario, British Columbia, Japan, Vietnam, Indonesia, Australia, Belgium, Abu Dhabi, Denmark, Hong Kong, Ukraine, and Chile. Fifty-one Edcamp events were held in 2011, 127 were held in 2012, and 190 were held in 2013 (Swanson p. 39-40).

The concept of Edcamps directly align with the principles, goals, and processes of self-direction in learning. As for the goals of self-direction in learning, Edcamps enhance one’s ownership of the learning process. People may speak freely about a particular topic and are also encouraged to ask questions if they need assistance by their peers or colleagues. They also promote critical reflection on their thoughts on educational topics. Not only do Edcamps promote social action amongst educators, but they also foster emancipatory learning because of the loose nature and comfortability of small groups discussions. They also take on a much more interactive process for adults to become self-directed in their learning. There are plenty of positive and meaningful conversations within small groups. It’s a true form of authentic learning that has adults feeling a sense of ownership by contributing via conversation with like-minded teachers and intrinsic motivating factors because teachers are gaining knowledge to help them become stronger and more effective educators.

Conclusion

Self-directed learning is a key component toward adult learning. This literature review provided an overview of different theories, goals, processes, and examples of self-direction in learning. It is important to promote self-direction with the field of education. The idea of becoming “a lifelong learner” is a fundamental idea in regards to any type of education. As adults grow more mature throughout their life, they tend to develop a stronger identity. With a stronger sense of identity, they become more aware of their surroundings around the world and how they learn on their own. This ultimately leads to stronger citizens

	Main idea of literature	Application of Main Ideas
Idea 1	There are 3 goals of self-directed learning 1.       Enhance ability of adults to be self-directed 2.       Encourage transformational learning as central to self-directed learning 3.       Promote emancipatory learning and social action	-          Learners should be taught how to be independent learners at an early age. -          Self-direction can also be impacted by profound changes in an individual’s life. -          Reflection and process are married in adult’s pursuit of meaning. -          Self-directed learners should learn autonomy and seek action towards making positive changes.
Idea 2	There are three models of processing self-direction in learning 1.       Linear models- step-by-step process to self-directed learning 2.       Interactive models- focusing on moments and experiences to find self-direction in learning 3.       Instructional models- promoting self-direction in learning environments	-          There is an order to becoming more self-directed in the learning process. -          Fortuitous actions or events that have been “clustered” can lead to more self-direction. -          Educators must transfer control of learning into the learner’s hands as much as possible. -          Use examples of self-directed learning frequently so learners can implement these strategies on their own.
Idea 3	The idea of Edcamps showcase several beneficial pieces of the goals and processes of self-directed learning.	-          Self-guided discussions in small groups help enhance self-direction. -          Conversations between colleagues helps foster critical reflections, intrinsic motivation factors, and ownership of learning. -          Edcamps offer authentic learning through meaningful conversations -          No expert or instructor leads to more interaction and collaboration amongst educators.

References

Brookfield, S. D. (1994). ‘Self-directed learning’, in YMCA George Williams College ICE301 Lifelong learning, Unit 1 Approaching lifelong learning. London: YMCA George Williams College.

Gibbon, Edward. (1911), The Autobiography of Edward Gibbon, Oliphant Smeaton ed. (p. 66) J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd, London.

Knowles, M.S. (1968). Andragogy, not pedagogy. Adult Leadership 16 (10) 350-352, 386.

Knowles, M.S. (1975). Self-Directed Learning. New York: Associated Press

Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L. (2007), Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide, (pp 105-129) Jossey-Bass Publishing, San Francisco, CA.

Mezirow, J. (1997) Transformative Learning: Theory to Practice. Retrieved September 22, 2013 from http://www.dlc.riversideinnovationcentre.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Transformative-Learning-Mezirow-1997.pdf

Swanson, Kristen. (2014). ‘Edcamp: Teachers Take Back Professional Development’, in Professional Learning Reimagined. Volume 71, Number 8 (pp. 36-40).