Scott Kenney- Literature Review

Scott Kenney Literature Review

Self-Directed Learning

“Every man who rises above the common level has received two educations: the first from his teachers; the second, more personal and important, from himself.”

-Edward Gibbon-

Introduction

Self-directed learning is where an individual takes on a much larger ownership role in the learning process. Unlike pedagogy, adults are motivated more by intrinsic motivating factors than extrinsic motivating factors.  Adults are less motivated by grades and rewards, but find more learning opportunities with being “hands on” within the learning process. One of the key components of andragogy is an adult’s sense of independence and self-direction toward their learning.

Knowles defines self-directed learning as “Self-directed learning is a process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and materials resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes. (Knowles, 1975, p.18).  Self-directed learning is one of the most popular researched areas in the field of adult education. One of the first important pieces of research about self-directed learning came from Allan Tough and Malcolm Knowles. Tough’s studies concluded that much of adult learning did not come from instructors, but of one’s self-direction. Later, Malcolm Knowles, one of the most central figures in adult education in the mid-1900’s, furthered that research with more analysis on self-directed learning. He proposed the “the hallmark of adult learning is that learners become increasingly self-directed as they mature” (Knowles, 1970, 1980). This paper will recognize the goals of self-directed learning, analyze the models of self-directed learning, and review certain examples to promote self-directed learning.

Goals of Self-Directed Learning

There are three goals towards self-directed learning. The first goal is to enhance the ability of the adults to be self-directed in their learning. The assumption with this goal is that an individual will be able to plan, execute, and evaluate their own learning (Merrian, Caffarella, Baumgartner, p. 107). This first goal’s foundation is that adult’s learn from personal growth and they will seek out advice if needed. Therefore, adults take on a much more ownership role in the learning process. For example, an online student may ask a professor for guidance about a certain project or assignment, such as locating resources, but ultimately it is up to the student to follow through with the completion of the particular assignment. This goal has recently been questioned due with its application to adults only. This can be something done at all levels to promote the idea of “lifelong learners” with elementary, middle, and high school students. (Schrader-Neff, p.107).

The second goal to foster transformational learning as central to self-directed learning. Transformational learning is about change- dramatic, fundamental change in the way we see ourselves and the world we live (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner p. 130). Transformational learning is connected to self-directed learning in that a transformational moment in someone’s life can help trigger one’s habit of mind or point of view (Merizow, 1997). A transformative moment could be a birth of a child, a diagnosis of cancer, the loss or a love one, or a career-altering moment in one’s profession. These changes in someone’s life allow for critical reflection to take place. This critical reflection is key towards changing one’s perspective on life. Also, Merizow states the “key” for self-directedness is “becoming critically aware of what has been taken for granted about one’s own learning” (p.17). Therefore, a transformative event not only can alter an individual’s point of view, but it can also help them become a more self-directed learner about a certain cause. For example, a married couple might reevaluate what they know about Down’s Syndrome if they give birth to a son or daughter with that particular birth defect. They might become more self-directed in learning about the genetic disorder, reaching out to other families with Downs Syndrome, or donating or volunteering for a local charity to help support fundraising. Another key component towards the second goal is the critical reflection.  Brookfield states, “the most complete form of self-directed learning occurs when process and reflection are married in the adult’s pursuit of meaning (Brookfield 1986, p. 38). I completely agree that the reflection and process should be linked together for an individual to learn on their own. Learning can be experimental in many phases; however, analyzing and reflecting on one’s processes fosters a greater sense of meaning. This deeper reflecting time helps promotes autonomy within one’s self and a greater sense of social action.

The third goal towards self-directed learning is enhancing the ability of individual learners to be more self-directed in their learning (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner p. 108). This goal is intended to promote emancipatory learning and social action. This third goal has received criticisms over the consistency and political factors of each group of adults that were being studied. Brookfield claims that certain groups or adults might receive preferential treatment based on costs for privileged groups and educators of adults should shift control over to the learners as much as possible throughout the learning process. It’s imperative to keep things consistent with adult learners, and that is key towards the success of goal number three with self-directed learning.

Self-Directed Learning as a Process

Learning on your own happens all of the time because adults are always aware of their surrounds and are more comfortable with their identity. There are three types of models with the process of self-directed learning- linear, interactive, and instructional. Tough’s (1967) and Knowles’ (1971) models are both linear in that there are certain steps towards learning in a self-directed manner. Tough, through his learning projects from Ontario Canada, claimed that 70% of adult learning came from the learners themselves and devised a thirteen-step process in which students learned on their own. Knowles model, which closely resembles Tough’s model, also has a six step process that involves diagnosing learning needs, formulating goals, implementing strategies and evaluating outcomes. While the sequencing of these linear steps appear valid, there are other models of self-directed learning that involve more interaction and instructional processes. I believe the more interactive and instructional processes hold true even more because learning should be more interactive.

The second form of processing as a self-directed learner is not of linear events, but rather a much more interactive model. Rather than learning via a sequential order, several other models introduce a much more involved way of learning. Spear’s model (1988) claims that certain events that are “clustered” together help promote one’s desire to want to learn. For example, an individual might move into a new house that is in need of several new updates and fixings. That, combined with the helpfulness of a handy-man new neighbor with some prior knowledge of carpentry will lead to a more successful self-led learner when it comes to fixing up their new house. Another example of processing interactively is the Personal Responsibility Orientation model.  This model, introduced by Brockett and Hiemstra argues that learners assume primary responsibility for planning, implementing, and evaluating their learning experiences (Merriam, Caffarella, Baumgartner, p. 113). Another interactive model, Garrison’s model introduces a multidimensional model that connects self-monitoring, motivation, and self-management. The balance of responsibility and control, along with the combination of motivation allows for learner to help construct meaning of their learning, which ultimately leads to more self-direction in the learning process.

The third model of self-directed learning involve learning through instructional practices. These models are aimed to promote more self-direction in learning. Grow’s (1991, 1994) Staged Self-Directed Learning model identifies four stages of learners- the dependent learner, the interested learner, the involved learner, and the self-directed learner. Highlights of this model have instructors focus more on student-led discussions, discovery learning, and letting the instructor play more of monitor in the learning process rather than lecturing and commanding types of instructional methods. Another instructional model by Hammond and Collins (1991) promotes the social action and emancipatory learning as key components to self-directed learning. In this particular model, the authors have outlined a seven-step framework that emphasizes a more purposeful approach to learning. Therefore, adults can examine and critical reflect on their own social, political, and environmental factors to develop personal and social learning goals.

Implications

After reviewing several pieces of literature on self-directed learning, it is essential for adults to have some type of ownership towards their learning and some type of intrinsic motivation to learn. There are a number of ways to promote self-direction in a formal and non-formal educational setting, but are there any examples that help promote ownership and motivating factors? As an educator, I am constantly trying to make my classroom more student-driven with handing more ownership to my students. However, what about fostering more self-direction learning with adults? After reviewing certain examples, Edcamps are great examples of promoting ownership towards adult learning.

An Edcamp is a much more organic approach towards teacher development. It is where a group of educators meet in small groups and discuss meaningful instructional methods, curriculum development, social-emotional concerns, integrational of technology, and any other relevant topic in education. The beauty of an Edcamp is that there is no time table, no expert or instructor, or no agenda to regulate the conversations. The idea of Edcamps is relatively new in the educational world, but the concept is growing. The Edcamp model has spread rapidly since our first event in 2010, not only throughout the United States (41 states are now represented) but also internationally to Sweden, Ontario, British Columbia, Japan, Vietnam, Indonesia, Australia, Belgium, Abu Dhabi, Denmark, Hong Kong, Ukraine, and Chile. Fifty-one Edcamp events were held in 2011, 127 were held in 2012, and 190 were held in 2013 (Swanson p. 39-40).

The concept of Edcamps directly align with the principles, goals, and processes of self-direction in learning. As for the goals of self-direction in learning, Edcamps enhance one’s ownership of the learning process. People may speak freely about a particular topic and are also encouraged to ask questions if they need assistance by their peers or colleagues. They also promote critical reflection on their thoughts on educational topics. Not only do Edcamps promote social action amongst educators, but they also foster emancipatory learning because of the loose nature and comfortability of small groups discussions. They also take on a much more interactive process for adults to become self-directed in their learning. There are plenty of positive and meaningful conversations within small groups. It’s a true form of authentic learning that has adults feeling a sense of ownership by contributing via conversation with like-minded teachers and intrinsic motivating factors because teachers are gaining knowledge to help them become stronger and more effective educators.

Conclusion

Self-directed learning is a key component toward adult learning. This literature review provided an overview of different theories, goals, processes, and examples of self-direction in learning. It is important to promote self-direction with the field of education. The idea of becoming “a lifelong learner” is a fundamental idea in regards to any type of education. As adults grow more mature throughout their life, they tend to develop a stronger identity. With a stronger sense of identity, they become more aware of their surroundings around the world and how they learn on their own. This ultimately leads to stronger citizens

	Main idea of literature	Application of Main Ideas
Idea 1	There are 3 goals of self-directed learning 1.       Enhance ability of adults to be self-directed 2.       Encourage transformational learning as central to self-directed learning 3.       Promote emancipatory learning and social action	-          Learners should be taught how to be independent learners at an early age. -          Self-direction can also be impacted by profound changes in an individual’s life. -          Reflection and process are married in adult’s pursuit of meaning. -          Self-directed learners should learn autonomy and seek action towards making positive changes.
Idea 2	There are three models of processing self-direction in learning 1.       Linear models- step-by-step process to self-directed learning 2.       Interactive models- focusing on moments and experiences to find self-direction in learning 3.       Instructional models- promoting self-direction in learning environments	-          There is an order to becoming more self-directed in the learning process. -          Fortuitous actions or events that have been “clustered” can lead to more self-direction. -          Educators must transfer control of learning into the learner’s hands as much as possible. -          Use examples of self-directed learning frequently so learners can implement these strategies on their own.
Idea 3	The idea of Edcamps showcase several beneficial pieces of the goals and processes of self-directed learning.	-          Self-guided discussions in small groups help enhance self-direction. -          Conversations between colleagues helps foster critical reflections, intrinsic motivation factors, and ownership of learning. -          Edcamps offer authentic learning through meaningful conversations -          No expert or instructor leads to more interaction and collaboration amongst educators.

References

Brookfield, S. D. (1994). ‘Self-directed learning’, in YMCA George Williams College ICE301 Lifelong learning, Unit 1 Approaching lifelong learning. London: YMCA George Williams College.

Gibbon, Edward. (1911), The Autobiography of Edward Gibbon, Oliphant Smeaton ed. (p. 66) J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd, London.

Knowles, M.S. (1968). Andragogy, not pedagogy. Adult Leadership 16 (10) 350-352, 386.

Knowles, M.S. (1975). Self-Directed Learning. New York: Associated Press

Merriam, S., Caffarella, R., & Baumgartner, L. (2007), Learning in Adulthood: A Comprehensive Guide, (pp 105-129) Jossey-Bass Publishing, San Francisco, CA.

Mezirow, J. (1997) Transformative Learning: Theory to Practice. Retrieved September 22, 2013 from http://www.dlc.riversideinnovationcentre.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Transformative-Learning-Mezirow-1997.pdf

Swanson, Kristen. (2014). ‘Edcamp: Teachers Take Back Professional Development’, in Professional Learning Reimagined. Volume 71, Number 8 (pp. 36-40).

Shawn Kalwat

Literature Review

Self-directed learning (SDL) is a learning tool that allows the learner to be autonomous with minimal supervision from an educator while still attaining knowledge and understanding of educational subjects. SDL has been separated from traditional ideas of learning that are in line with teachers guiding students through material in a classroom setting. In SDL, the student is required to self-teach the information and to attain material and information from outside sources to master the subject matter. The educator provides prompts to the student but mastery of the knowledge is left to the student. One of the key demographics that succeeds in using SDL are adult learners. Adult learners are self-motivated and autonomous because of life experience and their roles as adults. Because of the empowerment of life experience and previous formal education, adult learners are more likely to utilize SDL because of the intrinsic characteristics they hold as adults.

Definition

Self-directed Learning(SDL) has been a useful tool for many practitioners of adult education. However, the issue of defining SDL causes these same practitioners to define SDL by various different ideas. In order to operationalize any term for study, it is paramount to have a clear definition of the term and what is and is not compliant with the terms definition. In the case of SDL, definitions range from educators prompting students and having direct involvement to other educators belief that SDL is an independent activity that has to be accomplished by the student with little or no prompts or interjection from the educator. According to Stockdale and Brockett (2011):

“Self-direction has long been recognized as an important component of adults learning activities. However, almost without exceptions, the same adult educators who cite the centrality of this concept to adult learning suggest that confusion and controversy exist with the nature and application of the concept”(p.162).

One of the key areas many educators disagree on is the ability of the learner to be autonomous in regard to interaction with the educator and from prompting that may occur with this interaction.

Educators disagree on how much interaction there should be between educators and students in regards to SDL. According to Deci and Ryan (2000), “Essentially, students are said to be self-directed if they do not require inducement or prompts, whereas they are said to be other-directed or not self-directed if they do require such contingencies ”(p.76).  Others disagree with this premise and believe that students can be prompted and still be SDL. According to Reeve, Nix and Hamm (2003), “offering students choices from a teacher-generated list does not affect learners’ perception of self-determination, whereby facilitating choice over one’s actions does engender an experience capable of affecting perceived self-determination ”(p. 375). The ability of the student to choose which topic they will study allows them to take ownership of their learning which is a primary objective of SDL. The learner is directing their learning process and is in charge of their own learning. They choose a topic and from this point until the lesson is complete they are required to be self-directed in their learning to complete the assignment.

Ownership

SDL requires the student to own the learning process. They have to invest time and energy into completing the coursework. Ownership of the process is a belief that they are in charge of their success and they own their process. Knowles definition of self-directed learning is (1975):

“A process in which individuals take the initiative with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies and evaluating learning outcomes ”(p.164).

From this passage, the word initiative is synonymous with ownership of the process. The learner is required to be self-motivated to complete the task. This requires the learner to own the process of learning and to be autonomous. If they require additional tools or material, they are required to seek these materials out to complete the task. This autonomy can lead to empowerment of the learner and a realization that by owning the learning process they are personally responsible for their own success or failure.

Empowerment is a strong motivational tool of SDL. In self-determination theory, motivation is a belief that people are acting with purpose and intention in a belief that they can attain an outcome (Lewin, 1951, p.89). SDL empowers the learner with the belief they can achieve a goal on their own with minimal support. Motivation to learn does not require outside motives. The ability to attain goals and to use SDL to attain these goals empowers the learner through knowledge and a stronger belief in the self.

Motives

What motives are at play in SDL? If no educator is there to motivate the student how do, they stay on task or accomplish goals? The answer to both of these questions has been the subject of inquiry for multiple scholars. According to Deci and Ryan (2000):

“Intrinsic motivation is integral to the natural growth tendency in humans and represents an inherent aspect of the self. As such, when learning is intrinsically motivated it is self-directed “(p.89).

In adults learning is self-motivated and the learner should understand that what they are learning will be useful now and in the future.  The motivation of SDL has to come from within the student. There is limited access from an educator and the prompts a student is given should only guide the learner on their journey. It should be left to the learner to understand the knowledge and seek out material and addition information for themselves to better understand the lesson.

Adult learners seek out education to better their lives. They want to avail themselves to new opportunities that only come from education. SDL allows adult learners to channel this motivation to better their lives. Because they have previous knowledge, adult learners bring these experiences into the learning environment. These experiences allow them to understand and expand their understanding of new ideas. As Knowles (1998) pointed out, “self-direction depends on one’s…social maturity as generated by the assumption of adult life roles…” (p.29). Because of this maturity and life roles, adults are able to utilize SDL and reach their learning objectives.

SDL Learners

SDL learning requires self-motivation, maturity and the ability to work autonomously. SDL allows the learner to take control and to become master of their learning experience. Adults have previous experience in their live roles; in addition, those that have had formal schooling bring additional tools that are useful in SDL. According to Ellsworth (1992), “adults with more formal schooling tend to be more self-directing than adults who lack this background experience ”(p.32)  Adults with formal schooling understand what is required to be successful in an educational environment. They have study skills and learning strategies those that do not have formal educational experiences could not draw upon in an SDL environment.

SDL allows a learner to be autonomous. A student has to be able to be self-motivated and a self-starter to be successful in an SDL environment. Some students proper with autonomy and others need to be in a more structured environment. Those that do not have formal educational backgrounds will need to be mentored and are less self-directing that adults with higher levels of education (Ellsworth, 1992, p. 32).

Implications

The themes of SDL can inform the practice of education by enabling educators to understand what students would be the best candidates for self-directed learning. Because SDL requires a student to be self-motivated and have a strong formal educational background, students that do not have these characteristics should stay in the classroom and attain these skills before they enter SDL. SDL gives a student the ability to own their learning in ways that a classroom environment does not. In a classroom, students are given directions and mentored by the educator. In SDL, the direction and mentoring has to come from within the learner. While prompts from the educator can guide or start conversations in the learning environment, it is up to the student to distill down the information and learn it.

SDL is a great tool for adult learners with a formal educational background. Adult learners are intrinsically motivated. They are seeking information in order to gain skills or new knowledge they can use in their lives. Adult students bring previous experience that can be drawn upon if they encounter obstacles. They will seek out information or material to find a solution to a problem in ways that younger students may not be confident enough to do. Adult students are not seeking accolades from an educator in ways that younger students may do in the classroom. The accolades that an adult student seeks is knowledge and mastery of new knowledge.

Highlights

The highlights from this assignment is a stronger understanding of SDL.  SDL requires a student to be self-motivated and autonomous in ways that traditional educational programs do not. It is not a one size fits all idea and some students would succeed but others would fail because of a lack of motivation or a lack of formal education. Formal education and the skills that come from a formal educational environment are key to succeeding in SDL. Having strong study skills and being able to problem solve are necessities to succeed in SDL. Because of the advent of internet technology, SDL classes can be online. In an online setting, the professor could be across the country and so if the student encounters an obstacle it is up to the student to find a solution. Therefore, it is up to the student to be self-confident and have perseverance to succeed.

The lack of a clear, universal definition of SDL was a significant part of this assignment. From the literature, the definitions of SDL seemed to be in two camps. Those who believed the usage of prompts was acceptable in SDL and those who felt SDL should be autonomous with minimal interaction between the instructor and the student. In any research project, the researcher has to define the terms they will use and how they will be applied to the study. For this research study, the usage of SDL will include prompts because while SDL is self-determined the instructor needs to guide a student in the attainment of knowledge and to ensure that they fully understand the information they are given. SDL should not denude the instructor from the responsibility of providing information or guiding the student. If this were the case, SDL could be responsible for students misunderstanding information and leaving the class not completing the goals of mastery of the information.

Process

The process I used to complete this assignment required me to find scholars in the area of SDL through a database search. In addition to utilizing school databases, I utilized the internet and watched a few videos on the subject to better understand the literature that I was reading. Because I am new to the field of education, I wanted to attain some basic information in regards to SDL. From this information, I was able to find several themes scholars in this subject area identified as key variables in the usage of SDL as a learning tool. As someone that is interested in the role of SDL and how adults can utilize this learning tool, my continual interest in the field seeks to better understand which students are the best candidates to utilize this tool and which students are not. As a future educator, I feel that it is paramount students are given the tools to succeed and SDL is one of those tools.

Main Themes/Ideas                                                                         Application of the main ideas in practice

Idea 1 Defining Self-Directed Learning           Depending on how you define the term will determine how it will be applied

Idea 2 Taking ownership of learning                                    SDL requires students to take ownership of their education

Idea 3 Motivation is intrinsic                                             Internal motivation is the key to students being successful in SDL

Idea 4 Formal education is paramount to success.             Previous formal education should be a perquisite to using SDL.

Bibliography

Ellsworth, J. (1992). Adults’ learning. Journal of Adult Education, 21(1), 23-34.

Knowles, M. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for teachers and learners. New York, NY: Associated Press.

Knowles, M. & Holton F. & Swanson, R. (1998). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development. Houston, TX: Gulf.

Lewin, K. (1951). Intention, will and need. In D. Rappaport (Ed.), Organization and pathology of thought. New York: Columbia University Press. 95-153.

Reeve, J., Nix, G., Hamm, D. (2003). Testing models of the experience of self-determination in intrinsic motivation and the conundrum of choice. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 375-392

Stockdale, S. L., & Brockett, R. G. (2011). Development of the PRO-SDLS: A Measure of Self-Direction in Learning Based on the Personal Responsibility Orientation Model. Adult Education Quarterly, 61(2), 161-180.

Terry, M. (2006). Self-Directed Learning by Undereducated Adults. Educational Research Quarterly, 29(4), 28-38.

Literature Review - Perry

LaKrisha Perry

Literature Review

EDAC634

SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING

Introduction

Self-directed learning is about the individual taking responsibility and being accountable for learning, but still having input from others.  It is not a blanket method used by all based on their needs; self-directed learning is a process of learning based on the individual’s preference.  The individual has to have a willingness to learn.  Once they are open to learning they must set learning goals/outcomes.  They have to be engaged in the process and lastly they must see how the outcomes relate to their lives.  Knowles defines self-directed learning as learning “in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes” (Knowles, 1972).

General Themes

Self-Directed Learning and Technology

In today’s learning communities, technology is an integral part of learning environments.  Individuals have information at their fingertips and many times can suffer from information overload.  The self-directed learner must determine how they will utilize the technology.  When looking into the technological learning environment, individuals are able to communicate with professors, students, mentors and friends.  This provides an amazing variety of resources and knowledge that cannot be obtained by the regular physical classroom setting.  Individuals are able to “collaborate with others in the learning community.  The individual making the solo-quest for knowledge may rely on his or her curiosity, initiative, personal responsibility for learning, persistence in learning, self-confidence, and even goal orientation for that learning to occur, but the assistance of digital partners who may sit on another continent cannot be ignored” (Bryan, 2015). 

Collaboration provides an opportunity for the individual to grow in knowledge of technology tools and social networks.  It “heightens the need to succeed together” (Bryan, 2015).  Learners can be equipped at a young age to sort through sea of technology, but must also learn to use the tools to collaborate once they are in situations.  “Students’ prior knowledge can dictate their readiness to learn new material” (Mello, 2016), but some are not able to sort through the information and become overloaded with its abundance.  Even when provided the technological pathways to utilize, some individuals are not able to effectively comprehend the information as each relates to the big picture of the topic at hand.

Bryan provides the following bullet points in assisting individuals in the learning environment.  This list in not all inclusive to the points provided, but focuses on areas that are meaningful to the direction of this topic:

·         Assist the learner in becoming self-aware;

·         Teach how to use technology tools found on various devices;

·         Allow learners to take more control and responsibility for decisions about what and how they are to learn;

·         Assist learners in recognizing information overload and how to deal with it;

·         Provide encouragement for the learner to acquire skills, knowledge, and abilities that may improve his or her speed of assessing information and using that information;

·         Encourage learners to enjoy the chase for new knowledge or the thrill of discovery;

·         Provide the tools for learners to navigate in a safe learning environment with tools that help them to identify accurate information.

As we move toward a world more dependent upon technology, individuals must stay abreast of the changes to compete in an ever-changing world.  It must start at a young age.  “In essence, the learning orientations of today's younger people tied to expectations of what the Web promises, and even the growing pervasiveness of virtual information in almost any location may actually make self-directed approaches to teaching and learning the default norm” (Hiemstra, 2003)

Student Perspectives on Self-Directed Learning

Incorporating student self-directed learning on college campuses gives students the ability to take hold of their education.  They are able to shape the learning process to fit their needs.  Research completed by Trigwell & Prosser (as cited in Douglass & Morris, 2015) found the more control students have in their learning process, the more they sharpen their ability to sort through presented information as well as critically reflect and analyze their performance.

Even with students realizing the importance of making the most of their learning experience, professors have obligations as well.  Professors are given the opportunity to engage students in the learning process by allowing them the right to choose the learning methods best suited for their style of learning.  Giving students a choice allows them to be the decision maker.  “Many teachers and trainers have come to understand the importance of involving learners in the educational process” (Hiemstra, 2014).  Professors have the ability to form their class to allow students to work independently or interact with each other.  Students hold the responsibility of completing assignments based on the professor’s direction.  Research completed by Paavola & Hakkarainen (as cited in Douglass & Morris, 2015) found that learning occurs as students present information to and assess each other with the aim to create new knowledge through work.

In as much as professors have the ability to construct the class as they desire “straightforward: self-directed learning and self-assessment are facilitated by professors who have clear and relevant grading structures, offering job-shadowing and internship or clinical opportunities, are supportive of students and enthusiastic about teaching and learning” (Douglass & Morris, 2015).  Professors have a level of engagement they must uphold for students to stay connected to the online or physical classroom setting.  Professors must know what is important to the class of students they are instructing.  There is not an option that covers all concentrations of learning.

Likewise, administrators try to make student focused decisions, but may not realize how prominent students regard administrators’ roles in facilitating or blocking self-directed learning through scheduling courses, determining class sizes, setting faculty loads, and developing budgets for classroom technology” (Douglass & Morris, 2015).  Unfortunately, administrators may not always realize how their actions can impact the student learner’s ability to self-direct their learning.

Ultimately “students noted that learning tasks that gave them a sense of autonomy, competence, relatedness, or purpose did increase their motivation to self-direct their own learning” (Douglass & Morris, 2015).  These can be directly related to the instructor and administrators overseeing the educational process.  Given the students’ ability to connect with their educational experience, they will either perform or not.  Many are not motivated by the extrinsic rewards, but more so by the intrinsic reward of gained knowledge and experience.

Self-Directed Learning on Workplace Learning

Increases in knowledge, when applied in the work situation, can lead to improved productivity and/or quality.  Even though employees are placed in their respective positions, they compete on a daily basis with their co-workers to keep their positions. From the workers' point of view, the influence of social, technological and economic developments mean job security is no longer guaranteed.  Positions requiring mental problem-solving abilities are more apt to workplace sustainability.

As the workplace evolves, there are two dimensions found in the work environment: job demand and job control.   “Job demands refer to the physical and mental efforts involved in the work, specifically that a large volume of work is to be performed under conditions of high requirements and time constraints. Job control refers to the worker’s control over his or her work processes, in other words, the ability to make decisions and the opportunity to exercise a degree of control over the work to be carried out” (Raemdonck, Gijbels, & Groen, 2014).  Employees learn in environments where they are mentally challenged.

Learning environments also include social aspects.  A high level of social support allows for a collective work situation; when support is low it allows for an isolated work situation. Isolated work situations tend to have a high level of stress and which in turn increase health risks.  Health risks decrease productivity of employees directly and indirectly.

Positive effects on workplace learning are expected in situations in which there is a combination of high job demands, high job control and high social support.  This combination may at times create a high level of active learning.  Active learning takes place when the individual is actively engaged in their work and seeks ways to overcome challenges presented in the work environment.

The most advantageous combination of job characteristics for workplace learning includes high job demands, high job control, high social support, and a high level of self-directed learning.  This combination has a positive influence on employees’ workplace learning behavior.  “Workers with high job demands often find themselves challenged in their work and so are able to learn as part of their regular day to day work. They are also required to learn, as they have to cope with changes at work; because of this they frequently find themselves in new situations that demand new skills and knowledge” (Raemdonck, Gijbels, & Groen, 2014).

Employees can be categorized as engaged or unengaged.  Engaged employees tend to take the initiative to gain more knowledge about the tasks and work they are involved.  Thereby involving themselves in self-directed learning.  “High self-directed learning orientation sees learning first and foremost as their own responsibility, in order to keep up-to-date and as an essential component of their tasks. Furthermore, this type of worker learns for the sake of learning and for the pleasure experienced while learning. They have a continual desire to develop and are therefore motivated to take the initiative to learn and to persist in learning” (Raemdonck, Gijbels, & Groen, 2014).

Although stress can act as a potential barrier in the learning process for high demand and high control positions, workers tend to be persistent in pressing through the issue.  “As workers with a high self-directed learning orientation do not allow their learning to be held back by barriers, it is reasonable to assume that they can also overcome stress” (Raemdonck, Gijbels, & Groen, 2014).   Employees with high self-directed learning tend to overcome stress better than individuals with lower levels of self-directed learning.

Implications

At an early age children are given the opportunity to begin making decisions of educating themselves based on information they are subjected to.  They must be guided in determining the relevance of information to their needs.  As they progress in age their decision making abilities can allow them to be successful in the educational arena and workforce.

The availability of technology allows individuals to connect in and outside of the physical classroom setting.  Students are now able to collaborate with students locally and in other countries while still being in the same online classroom.  This allows for a broader range of knowledge as it relates to topics studied which gives students the ability to develop a more diverse way of processing information.  Although students can connect with each other in the online class setting, there are still physical classroom settings that can create or hinder the self-directed learning process.   Students must be given the ability to have control over their learning process.  Students should be allowed the opportunities to determine the best methods of delivery of information, be responsible for setting learning objectives and allow students the opportunity to work independently and collaboratively.

Professors must create a classroom that allows students to be engaged in the learning process.  Students must be given different methods to learn the information presented as they are all different.  Professors must be engaged in the teaching process so students can be engaged in the learning process.

Administrators must realize the importance of diversified settings based on the subject area of learning.  One size fits all will not work when looking at the different subject areas.  Students in different concentrations learn in different ways/settings.  They must look at class sizes, technology, and faculty loads.

Self-directed learning in the workplace is at its greatest in employees when learning includes high job demands, high job control, high social support, and a high level of self-directed learning.  This combination has a positive influence on employees’ workplace learning behavior.   Employees become engaged as they have a sense of connection to the workplace as they are now a problem-solver for the company.  They flourish when they have a social support system that can empathize with their situations and provide suggestions.  The more the employee is engaged in self-directed learning in the company, the more the employee realizes he/she can process through stressful situations and looks forward to challenges.

Reflection

When coming up with the ideas for my paper, I chose to base it on the different areas as they relate to a person’s career.  I chose to start with technology as it encompasses many areas of learning both young and old.  Self-directed learning as it relates to technology is not for everyone.  Many may not realize how technology can be overwhelming even when only given a small piece to work with.  All individuals are not ready nor will they ever be ready to take on the complications of technology.  I moved into the educational arena and students’ perspectives on self-directed learning.  I began to realize how self-directed learning can either be present or omitted from the learning process.  Even though it may seem a student is in control of this process, many times they are not.  Students are not always allowed to think for themselves and be the decision maker in their educational journey.  Many times, students are provided information in one format and expected to regurgitate what the professor has taught them at a specified time.  Students are not engaged as the learner and given opportunities to initiate their own learning objectives and find ways that best relate to their learning abilities.

Table

	Main Themes of Literature	Application of Main Themes in Practice
Theme 1	Self-directed learning and technology	·         Technology must have a focus/direction in the educational process before it can be effective; students should be educated on the different areas of technology to be able to effectively utilize them. ·         Technology allows students to collaborate outside of the physical classroom.
Theme 2	Student perspectives on self-directed learning	·         Allow students to have control over the learning process; they will sharpen their ability to sort through presented information as well as critically reflect and analyze their performance. ·         Professors should engage students to know what is important to the class they are instructing. ·         Administrators must assist in creating the self-directed learning environment by providing the appropriate technology, class size and scheduling.
Theme 3	Self-directed learning on workplace-learning	·         Self-directed learning will be heightened in environments where employees are empowered with opportunities to be decision-makers. ·         Social networks must be created in the workplace; a high level of social support allows for a collective work situation.

REFERENCES

Bryan, V. C. (2015). Self-Directed Learning and Technology. Education Digest, 80(6), 42-44.

Retrieved from http://proxy.bsu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=tfh&AN=100899083&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Douglass, C., & Morris, S. (2014). Student perspectives on self-directed learning. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 14(1), 13-25.

doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.14434/josotl.v14i1.3202

Hiemstra, R. (2003). More Than Three Decades of Self-Directed Learning: From Whence Have We Come?  Adult Learning, 14(4), 5-8.

Knowles, M. S. (1972) Principles of Andragogy.

Mello, L. (2016). Fostering postgraduate student engagement: online resources
             supporting self-directed learning in a diverse cohort. Research In Learning
             Technology, 24. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/rlt.v24.29366

Raemdonck, I., Gijbels, D., & Groen, W. (2014). The influence of job characteristics
             and self-directed learning orientation on workplace learning.  International
             Journal Of Training & Development, 18(3), 188-201.
             doi: 10.1111/ijtd.12028

Literature Review

I replied to Jessica Davidson from Transformational Learning on 10/1 and Mishele Adams from Embodied Learning on 10/1.

Self-Directed Learning

Stephanie Coleman

Ball State University

Self-Directed Learning

Self-directed learning is a process were the learner takes initiative to plan, follow through, and evaluate their own learning.  The learner takes on the ownership of their learning process.  This causes it to become more than acquiring knowledge but a memorable and motivating experience.  There are three goals to self-directed learning, which are to enhance the ability of adult learners to be self-directed in learning, to foster transformational learning as central to self-directed learning, and to promote emancipatory learning and social action as an integral part of self-directed learning. Self-directed learning builds a learner’s confidence, and causes them to be responsible for their own learning. 

There are three types of models – linear, interactive, and instructional. In the linear model learners move through steps.  According to Knowles there were six major steps: climate setting, diagnosing learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes.  The interactive model does not follow a plan or steps, it is dependent upon opportunity, personality, cognitive processes, and the context of learning that form episodes of self-directed learning. Spear’s model stated that chance occurrences, opportunities in the environment, and past or new knowledge makes up the process of self-directed learning.  In the instructional model there is a framework for facilitators to implement self-directed methods into their programs. Grow determined there were four stages of learners, which are dependent, interested, involved, and self-directed (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner 2007).  In this paper I will discuss the applications and implications of incorporating self-directed learning in curriculum.

Technology

            The advancement of technology has also affected the use of self-directed learning in the instructional model.  “When technology is infused into the curriculum, it can promote development of skills and attitudes for lifelong, self-directed learning” (Bryan 2015). The use of technology can enhance the self-directed learning experience because the learner has wide variety of resources to utilize in order to reach their academic goal.  These resources can be utilized on their time without the assistance of a facilitator. The use of online resources also increases the opportunity for learners to pursue their educational goals within colleges and universities.  It allows learners to close educational “gaps” by learning a concept that is a prerequisite for the course on their own, using technology resources.  It also allows the facilitator to give immediate feedback and clarify any misunderstandings quickly.  As well as, allowing the learner to reach out to the facilitator with questions and concerns in a timeframe that is acceptable for them.    

            The literature states the important role that technology has played in developing self-directed learning.  As an on-line graduate student, I would have to fully agree with this premise.  By utilizing the technology provided with this course, such as the online discussion boards, and recommended videos, I have developed a strong understanding of the course content.  It has also allowed me to further my understanding by utilizing the online library for articles.  I have videos to further my understanding of the content on my own.  I agree that technology has enhanced the experience of self-directed learning.

Collaboration

Collaboration is always an excellent learning experience, even in self-directed learning.  “In spite of the emphasis on the word “self,” Malcolm Knowles suggested that self-directed learning often involved others-teachers, mentors, and even friends as assistants in the learning process” (Bryan 2015). Incorporating collaboration in self-directed learning, allows learns to initiate an investigation with others that are interested in the same concept. It allows learners to work together to make meaning of new content and experiences.  The collaboration process can also be improved with the use of technology because it allows the learner to communicate with learners from different countries, cultures, and backgrounds.  This can also lead to the goal of transformational learning during self-directed learning by allowing learners to see a concept from a completely different perspective. This may lead a learner to question their own preconceived assumptions about a concept.  This questioning could lead to self-reflection and finally to new transformational learning experience.

This theme reinforces the fact that self-directed learning does not involve one person.  The process of self-directed learning is a journey that a person goes on, but usually they encounter several other travelers going down the same path.  It helps us to remember that these experiences with others also lead to learning.    

Feedback

             Incorporating a feedback cycle in self-directed instruction can bolster the facilitator and learner interactions.  In the feedback cycle the facilitator asked the learners to identify their own questions that were relevant to the lecture content and provide logical answers to their own questions.  Once submitted the facilitator would correct any misunderstandings, and ask two or three questions of their own based on the learner’s answers.  The learner then chose one of those questions to answer.  “Because the assignment reflected a student’s own intellectual interest, the instructor was able to develop a holistic view of the student” (Journal of Science College Teaching 2016). 

            Prompt feedback also helps learners to self-monitor their understanding of concepts and what their next steps should be in going forward.  I agree that having often feedback is a positive component that would be beneficial to self-directed learning instruction.

The Role of the Facilitator

            The role of the facilitator in self-directed learning is not diminished but changed.  “Student-centered learning may diminish the role of the instructor in terms of lecturing but requires a significant commitment to create an inspiring and supportive environment for learning” (Journal of College Science Teaching 2016).  An important component of introducing self-directed learning is making sure there is an understanding between the facilitator and the learners. “In order for SDL to be successful, it is necessary for the teacher to shed the ‘expert’ stance and join the student as a co-learner (Nolan and Nolan, 1997a,b)”  (Levett-Jones 2005).  Facilitators must ensure that the learners and the facilitators themselves are prepared with a cognitive understanding of self-directed learning, prior to incorporating it into the curriculum.  There must be a balance between teacher-directed learning and student directed learning.  It is the responsibility of the facilitator to determine and maintain that balance so that both learners and facilitators do not become overwhelmed and frustrated.  “Perhaps it is not the concept of SDL that is problematic however, but the misinterpretation of its implications and limitations, and an indiscriminate application its principles” (Levett-Jones 2005).

            I agree that the facilitator’s role is a key component in accomplishing effective self-directed learning instruction.  Implementing self-directed learning instruction should also be a self-directed learning experience for the facilitator as well as the learner.  The facilitator must ensure the learners are ready and fully understand the concept of self-directed learning. The facilitator should also always consider what is in the best interest of the learner.

Implications

Technology

            Implementing technology in self-directed learning instruction can enhance the learning experience.  It provides the learner with several resources for instruction.  The application of technology can be utilized in several ways.  Technology can be used to help students have a similar experience with prior knowledge in order to be successful in a course.  “As students’ prior knowledge can dictate their readiness to learn new material, the expectation was that through SDL the students would have the opportunity to achieve the required ‘starting point’ for each session in the module” (Mello 2016).  Technology can also be utilized to bolster collaborations with other learners that they would normally not come into contact with.  “This electronic collaboration ironically heightens the necessity that learners be self-directed” (Bryan 2016). 

Collaboration

            Collaboration during self-directed learning is a key to its success.  “With a strong self-directed learning skill bank they can make sense of the world through interpersonal social negotiation with their peers or even a content expert” (Bryan 2016).  Having learners collaborate in small groups after a lecture or assignment is a good way to strengthen their understanding of the concept.  It also allows any differences in understanding to be discussed and debated. Collaboration causes learners to listen to, and understand a concept from another person’s perspective. Utilizing online group collaboration tools gives all learners the ability to collaborate, share content, develop new understandings and knowledge.  Students could participate in online discussion boards, or respond to another person’s blog. “Assist the learner in becoming self-aware and able to assess his or her skills, assets, and liabilities;” (Bryan 2016).

Feedback

            Receiving feedback from facilitators and peers is an excellent way to self-monitor your understandings and misconceptions. In practice the facilitator or peers would give timely feedback to answers to questions or reflective writing.  In addition, they could ask learners questions about the answers they provided or the reflective writing they have submitted.  This would cause the learner to delve deeper into their own thinking. “The instructor could recognize individual students’ levels of understanding and correct any errors that were not brought to her attention during the lecture.  Students were also able to verify their understanding of the lecture content before high-stake exams” (Journal of College Science Teaching 2016).

Role of the Facilitator

            It is crucial for the facilitator to ensure that learners are ready and prepared to be self-directed learners. “Many students entering nursing, conditioned by past pedagogical/teacher-directed learning experiences, may not be prepared of SDL, leading to difficulty in adapting to, and at times open rejection of SDL (Slevin and Lavery,1991)” (Levett-Jones 2005).  The facilitator also must have a strong understanding of the application of self-directed learning.  The facilitator must find a balance between teacher-directed learning and self-directed learning. The facilitator should have a clear plan of how they are going to incorporate self-directed learning in their curriculum, and how they will evaluate the learning outcome in way that promotes reflection.  In practice the facilitator would have an open discussion with learners and explain clearly the expectations of the self-directed learning portion of the course.  Then follow through with constant support, reminders, feedback and resources to ensure the success of learners. “However it is not enough that the teacher is approachable and establishes the right climate for learning assuming that the students will, in some undefined, magical way, become self-directed learners” (Levett-Jones 2016).

Reflection

Highlights

            The highlights of this assignment was developing a stronger understanding of self-directed learning.  It was interesting to look at the importance of feedback and collaboration even though it is self-directed learning. The most significant part to me was the role of the facilitator.  Often we focus and question the role of the learner, but role of the facilitator is assumed instead of questioned. It was important to understand that the role of the facilitator is often the most important factor in success of self-directed learning.

Process

            I started this assignment researching journal articles that I was interested in, in regards to self-directed learning.  After identify the articles I wanted to focus on I read through them several times to understand and identify the themes and main ideas.  I started with completing my table first, in order to organize my thoughts.  I am still working on my understanding of how to post and maintain a blog.

Table 1
Summary of the Literature Review
Main Theme	The Main Theme Ideas	Application of the Main Ideas in Practice
1.      Technology	-          Enhances self-directed learning -          Makes self-directed learning more convenient -          A way to collaborate		-          Provides learners with several sources of information -     Allows adult learners to further their education in a convenient way that fits their unique schedules. -          Provides away to collaborate with peers from all over the world (which can broaden a learner’s perspective)
2.      Collaboration	-          Self-directed is not just “self” -          Importance of collaboration -          Ways to collaborate	-          Allows learners to hear different points of views -          Helps foster a deeper understanding of the content -          Collaboration can happen in a variety of ways that work for the adult learner- person to person, e-mail, text, blogs, discussion boards, and phone calls.
3.      Feedback	-          Prompt facilitator-feedback -          Peer feedback -          Used to understand the learner’s thinking	-          Helps learners quickly clear-up misunderstandings and strengthens understanding -          Allows learners to learn from each other’s experiences and understandings -          Allows the facilitator to see learners holistically
4.      Facilitator’s Role	-          Incorporating self-directed learning -          Importance of self-directed learning -          Changing and embracing new ways to instruct	-          Facilitators must thoroughly plan to correctly incorporate self-directed learning -          Self-directed learning can allow learners to have a more rigorous and in-depth learning experience -          Allows the facilitator to also grow and learn

 

References

Bryan, V. C. (2015). Self-directed learning and technology. Education Digest, 80(6), 42.

Choi, Y., & Anderson, W. J. (2016). Self-directed learning with feedback. Journal of College Science Teaching, 46(1), 32.

de Bruijn, E., & Leeman, Y. (2011). Authentic and self-directed learning in vocational education: Challenges to vocational educators. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(4), 694-702. doi:10.1016/j.tate.2010.11.007

Levett-Jones, T. L. (2005). Self-directed learning: Implications and limitations for undergraduate nursing education.

Mello, L. V. (2016). Fostering postgraduate student engagement: Online resources supporting self-directed learning in a diverse cohort. Research in Learning Technology, 24, 1-16. doi:10.3402/rlt.v24.29366

Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., & Baumgartner, L. (2007). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (3rd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.